1. Introduction

The menhirs of the Iberian Peninsula are, in comparison to other large European Megalithic regions or with other types of prehistoric peninsular monuments, notoriously unknown. There exist various reasons for the "low profile" of Iberian Menhirs: one of the most important rests in the fact that, in the majority of the cases, they had toppled in ancient times and, because of this, are very difficult to identify by non-specialists. The truth is that, still to this day, even after the identification of some rare examples (Ferreira, 1864; Pereira, 1880; Veiga, 1886), it was just in the 1970's that the most complex monuments and those well conserved had began being studied and that the global number of menhir sites had risen exponentially. It was just in this period that there started to exist a rudimentary notion of the relative importance and personality of the principal regions of menhirs on the Iberian Peninsula.

With the current data available, it is possible to arrange the Iberian menhirs into five distinctive regions (with possible internal subdivisions ) according to their characteristics. Using the criteria of geography, typology and/or chronology, the areas are: the Algarve, the Alentejo (with a remarkable concentration   in the Central Alentejo), the Northwest Peninsula (Central and northern Portugal and Galicia), the Cantabrian Cornice and the Western Pyrenees (Asturias, Cantabria, Valencia, Burgos and the Basque country) and Catalonia.

The maps presented do not take into account, for practical reasons, the diverse types and dimensions of the menhirs. The objective is, over all, to offer a notion of the spatial distribution of the phenomenon, without considering the significance of their diversity, in terms of typology and relative density.

In the list of sites, there is indicated, after the name of the monument, the number of menhirs; the absence of a number means that it is an isollated menhir. In the Cantabrian Cornice and the Western Pyrenees, the number following the name of the sites referes to menhirs or cromlechs, as, in the end, is expressed, respectively, (M) or (CR).

The chronological differences (a fundamental problem that, on the whole, continues to be unresolved) are the object of commentaries from region to region, as long as there is data that allow for it.

With this current knowledge, we can affirm that it is in the South of Portugal (Central Alentejo and the Western Algarve) that there exists the greatest concentration of menhirs on the Iberian Peninsula, a phenomenon that is highlighted by the dimensions of the monoliths and the complexity of the assemblages, as well as their apparent antiquity.

Fig. 1: Distribution map of the menhirs and megalithic enclosures of Iberia.

Fig. 2: Main sites refered in the text. 1: Pedrão; 2: Quinta da Queimada;3: Vale Pincel 1; 4: Almendres; 5: Vale Maria do Meio; 6: Vale d'El Rei; 7: Monte da Tera; 8: Meada; 9: S.Cristóvão; 10: Pedrafita de Cristal; 11: Sejos; 12: Mendiluce; 13: Sierra de la Tercia; 14: Navalcán.

2.1. Algarve

The menhirs of the Algarve constitute a very distinctive group in the context of the Iberian Peninsula. They are distinguished, over all, in respect to their morphology and decoration as much as they are by the archaeological context where the majority of them are located.

In regional terms, the menhirs are represented by a noted concentration in the far western area of the province and gradually diminish towards the east. In spite of the exception of less that 1%, the main material of the menhirs is sedimentary rock from the regional geological substrata. They are primarily made of limestone and, to a lesser degree, of sandstone; often there exists a discordance between raw material and the local geological substrata. This implies, therefore, some effort in their transportation.

The Algarve menhirs generally correspond to sub-conical and sub-cilindrical forms, many times with their distal extremities demarcated. A great part of these monoliths seem to have been shaped, an operation relatively easy due to the scarce hardness of the material.

Decoration, (more that 50%), consists of a repetition of graphic/symbolic geometric designs where the less original ones, from this assemblage, are certainly the groups of longitudinal, wavy parallel lines that resonate from other examples in Atlantic megalithic art (Bueno and Balbín, 1995). On the whole, the menhirs are decorated with geometric motifs that are almost always organized in longitudinal bands. These representations do not have immediate parallels to other iconographic vocabularies found in European megalitism (David Calado, 2000a).

Many of the isolated menhirs and groups of menhirs are found in association with Neolithic habitat remains - and often with Mesolithic remains, too (Gomes, 1996; Bicho et al., 2000). This aspect is one of the most unique traits of the Algarve menhirs (David Calado, 2000a, b; David Calado et al,, 2003).

Contrary to one previous idea, apparently considered valid in some regions of Peninsular megalitism (Ruiz, Diez and Lopez, 1993), the menhirs of western Algarve are concentrated in territories virtually void of funerary megalitism.

In terms of stature, the Algarve menhirs are, on an Iberian Peninsular scale, of small and medium size. None of them attain a length of four meters and some of them are so small that they hardly deserve the classification of a menhir.            

As is often found in other Iberian menhirs, the majority of exemplars known in the Algarve have collapsed (only five have been found erected). Besides this, the identified groups, that correspond to possible megalithic enclosures, are in such a state of disarticulation that it is impossible to reconstruct their original layout. As a matter of fact, even at sites that were excavated, it hasn't been possible to obtain this kind of information. Besides, there still exists the need to clarify, in an exact manner, the question of the funcional and chronological relationship between the menhirs and the material remains that quite often are spatially, or even stratigraphically, associated.

Parallel to this recurrent association, there were obtained two radiocarbon dates from a hearth near by the menhir of Pedrão with calibrated dates from the second half of the 6 th millenium B.C. The excavator (Gomes, 1996) states that "the archaeological layer that corresponds to the occupation dated by 14C covers the sockets from the two menhirs". This would imply some anteriority of the monument   in relation to the dates obtained and suggests an interpretative model for the relationship between the menhirs and the habitats.

2.2. List of sites

3.1. Alentejo

The Alentejo is the Peninsular region with the greatest number of sites with menhirs and, at the same time, where there are found the biggest groups as well as the largest menhirs. Only in the Central Alentejo are there known to be 87 sites, making a total of 374 menhirs. While in the Algarve, at 80 referenced sites, there are only around 259 menhirs.

The raw material of the Alentejan menhirs is nearly exclusively granite and similar rocks, although several isolated menhirs, and the majority of the megalithic enclosures, are implanted in areas with different geological bedrock (gneiss and tertiary deposits).

It should be noted that the raw material of the menhirs certainly dictated the shape of the monoliths of the region: in fact, the majority of them were not subjected to any kind of   working, rather they seem to have been selected from naturally available outcrops. Therefore, the generally ovoid shapes predominate, often with a flattened side, due to the   geological phenomenons that usually affect the local granitic rocks.

In topographic terms, the implantation of many menhirs, and the majority of the megalithic enclosures, were erected in the upper part of slopes that faced the rising sun. This orientation towards the rising sun is related to, at least in some cases, common astronomical phenomenons such as the rising of the sun and the moon (Alvim, 1996-1997; Silva, 2000) - a ritual norm that regional dolmens repeat without exceptions (Hoskin and Calado, 1998).

The Alentejan megalithic enclosures seem to correspond, on the whole, to a pattern applied in all the region, although obviously with variations. The size of the menhirs vary in a significant way although the strategy of implantation, the shape and the proportions tend to be maintained. In all of those enclosures where the plan was preserved, or at least partially preserved, the layout tends to be in the shape of a horseshoe open in the direction of the rising sun (Fig. 4.A). Only in the case of Almendres, the largest of all and the one that is implanted at the highest elevation, was this initial plan altered by posterior additions.

Fig. 4: Compared plans of the megalithic enclosures of Iberia. A: Alentejo Central;   B.: Cantábria.

One of the most exclusive aspects of the Alentejan menhirs, in the Peninsular context, is the engravings displayed by some that are almost always executed in low relief. The motifs used, in descending order, are crooks, crescent moons associated with rectangular/trapezoidal figures, circles and wavy lines, besides one or two less frequent motifs. The majority of the monoliths, however, are aniconic.

The enclosures are located, almost all, in Central Alentejo (district of Évora) with the exception of two cases: Alminho (Martins et al, 1999) and Torrão (Albergaria and Silva, 1995), both already in the district of Portalegre. The third, less obvious, is in Monte Novo, Sines (Silva and Soares, 1981).

In the Baixo Alentejo, the menhirs are, as a matter of fact, very few known examples and in all cases they are associated with the rare spots of magmatic rocks in the region. On the other hand, in the extreme north of the Alentejo, despite the nonexistence of enclosures, there exists an interesting group of standing stones. In between these monoliths rests the largest of all the menhirs on the Iberian Peninsula: the Meada menhir which is 7 meters in length.  

Despite the fact that the direct chronological data is scarce (Oliveira, 1997), several indicators point to a chronology that begins in the Early Neolithic (Calado, 1990; 1993; 1997b; 2000a; 2002b; Gomes, 1994b; Gomes, 2000). However, one should not discard the hypothesis, though certainly bold,   that some of the menhirs were erected by the last Mesolithic societies of hunter-gatherers.  

However, the research developed over the last years has allowed for the confirmation of the existence, in the Central Alentejo, of menhirs datable to the first Iron Age that were used in association with funerary structures (Rocha, 2003): a possible circle of menhirs framing a rock tumulus and about one hundred meters from this circle, a small alignment pointing inward.  

Recently discovered in the environs of Évora are the menhirs of Monte das Flores which may be another possible monument of this kind that has not been subjected to any excavation yet. Actually, the menhirs are spatially related to an Iron Age site that is possibly funerary.  

Recent excavations allowed the identification of another interesting phenomenon: the reutilization (possibly as necropoli) of an enclosure (Portela de Mogos) (Gomes, 1997a) and of a pair of menhirs (S. Sebastião 1). At both of these sites there was found an abundance of ceramic recipients (small carinated bowls mostly), dating to the Early Bronze Age.

3.2. List of sites

4.1. Northwest Peninsula
Central and Northern Portugal and Galicia

The Central and Northern Portugal, as well as Galicia, are represented by a low density of menhirs.   The available sample is practically constituted of isolated menhirs. In truth, the only cases of megalithic enclosures known in the region corresponds to atypical realities that are not very well known and are of undetermined chronology and function.  

I refer to the Galician "circos líticos" (Maciñeira, 1929; Ramil, 1997) where there is only knowledge of three cases: Mourela (As Pontes); Prao das Chantas (O Valadouro) and O Freixo (As Pontes). The available descriptions of these enclosures do not substantiate them enough to include them in the subject of menhirs. Therefore, they were not listed in this work.

Further south, the two enclosures of S. Cristóvão (Resende), considering the results published until today, seem to correspond to Iron Age necropoli with some similarities to the monument of Monte da Tera (Silva, 2003); in the Tejo basin, the "monument" of Couto da Espanhola was published initially as a megalithic enclosure but with a lot of reservations (Henriques et al, 1993). However, a recent synthesis from one of the authors of the first article, does not refere to it (Cardoso, 2002). As a matter of fact, the size and the characteristics of this enclosure suggests that it is a structure related to agro-pastorial activities from recent times, similar to many others known in the central Alentejo (Burgess, 1987; Calado and Mataloto, 2001).

Another case, very doubtful, is the supposed enclosure of Barreira (Sintra, Portugal) (Vicente and Andrade, 1973), where an accurate observation of the geology and the round-about area, advises considering the "menhirs" as natural outcrops, however convincing they may seem (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3: The natural menhirs of Barreira (Sintra, Portugal).

Concerning the isolated menhirs of this region, they are characterized by always being constructed from granite or similar rock and, with frequency, being inserted in areas with funerary megalithic manifestations. We do not have, in general, any type of chronological evidence except in two very interesting cases. The first is one from the dolmen Granja de S. Pedro (Idanha-a-Nova) where there were discovered two menhirs buried by the mound of the funerary monument (Almeida e Ferreira, 1971).   This means, obviously, that they have to be older. The other one, less explicit, is the curious case of   the Cegonhas menhir (Cardoso et al, 1995,) which is in truth, a prehistoric quern reused as a small menhir.   

In terms of size and morphology, the menir of Pedrafita de Cristal, in Galicia, deserves a special mention. In general, the menhirs of the northwestern Peninsula are of rather modest dimensions, with the largest measuring around 3 meters. The majority are aniconic and the rarely recognized motifs are normally cruciforms - motifs that are difficult to assign both chronologically and culturally.      

4.2. List of sites

5.1. Cantabrian Cornice and the Western Pyrenees (Asturias, Valencia,Cantabria and the Basque Country)

In the northern part of the Peninsula, between the Asturias and Navarre, there exists a relatively high number of menhirs and enclosures with menhirs with a notorious gradation from west to east.   Because of this gradation, it has been evaluated as a phenomenon of "eastern style more than Atlantic" (Ruiz, Diez and Lopez, 1993).

In truth, the high incidences of megalithic manifestations in the Basque country that surpass the exemplars listed and mapped in this work, deserve a preliminary note. The overwhelming majority of the so-called cromlechs or cronlechs has little or nothing to do with the megalithic enclosures of Atlantic Europe (often referred to using the same Breton term) and are funerary monuments from the Iron Age often found without incorporating true menhirs (Blot, 1982; Vegas, 2001).

Nevertheless, in this region there are a few rare isolated menhirs whose function is certainly diverse and whose dimensions radically stand out from the small monoliths that are included in the cromlechs mentioned above. In this category, two menhirs deserve mentioning: the menhirs of Argintzo and of Arrizabala (Navarra), both with about 5 meters in height and whose prehistoric origins seem to be defendable.  

More to the west, mostly in Cantabria, but with a considerable number more towards the south, in the Province of Burgos, exist many isolated menhirs and a less significant number of megalithic enclosures - some of which may be included within the Basque cromlech family.  

However, there are other very distinct situations, such as the enclosure of Sejos (Bueno et al, 1985). This enclosure has two decorated slabs with iconography that, according to the excavators, points to Chalcolithic chronologies and a probable ritual function.

Furthermore, this dating is coherent with a radiocarbon date obtained from the enclosure of Peña Oviedo (Diaz, Diez and Roblesl, 1991), placing it at the beginning of the 3 rd millennium B.C. Moreover, microlithic artifacts and a scarcity of ceramics were collected from this site.

Another exception, whose implications are difficult to discuss with the available data, is the Corona de Campóo enclosure, which seems to be open on the eastern side

Some Cantabrian menhirs attained dimensions close or superior to 3 meters such as El Cabezudo, El Peñuco and La Llaneda, in Valdeolea. With the exception of the case of Sejos, the more reoccurring decoration of the menhirs in this region is cruciforms or cupmarks.

In terms of raw material, the monoliths from this megalithic region are almost all of sandstone. With rare exceptions, the provenience of the sandstone is in an immediate geographic context.

5.2. List of sites

6.1. A Catalonia

The septentrional part of Catalonia is relatively fertile in menhir monuments, too. Some have appreciable sizes such as Pedra Dreta de Can Ferrer (with about 3,5 meters), La Murtra de S. Climent de Sescebes (with 3,45 meters) or Los Palaus (with about 3,20 meters).

There are not any known megalithic enclosures.

The more frequently used raw material is granite and other similar rocks.

In Catalonia, we do not have chronological data for the menhirs. However, the most of the authors are generally inclined to place these monuments in a time frame coherent with the regional funerary megaliths, with dates that begin in the Middle Neolithic; J. Tarrus even admits, without presenting any concrete evidence, that the "menhirs had probably already existed" (Tarrus, 2002: 913) when the first dolmens were built.

6.2. List of sites

7.1. Others

Besides these five areas that generally have some geographical and archaeological uniformity, there exists on the Iberian Peninsula a collection of isolated manifestations which are difficult to integrate within other groups and whose isolation can, hypothetically, correspond to gaps in research.

The menhir of Sierra de la Tercia, just recently brought to light, in the Province of Murcia (Ayala et al, 2000), is a limestone monolith about 4 meters in length. At its base, archaeological material of Neolithic typology was collected (arrowheads, silex blades, and groundstone tools). The cultural significance of this find is unknown since there are no other parallels for this case. The published data, which is not very explicit, seems to allude to a votive deposit.

More to the west, there are three small menhirs from the Sierra de Huelva, published in the beginning of the 1990s (Berrocal, 1991). Recently, some others have been identified in the same area (Dominguez et al, 1996), most of which are still unpublished (Leonardo Garcia, personal information). Once again, these monoliths do not have relevant chronological or cultural data.

Also recently, the menhirs of La Cerca (Jimenez, 2000) from the Upper Extremadura were published. These menhirs are peculiar because two of them have incised zigzagged engravings recalling one of the most common motifs found in the artwork of Iberian dolmens.   

The menhir included in the structure of the dolmen of Navalcán (Bueno et al, 1999), in the Province of Toledo, deserves some mention. It has engravings that are similar to the themes and the techniques patent in the Central Alentejan menhirs. It can, hypothetically, be a menhir reutilised in a funerary context - a well-known phenomenon in Brittany and recently observed in several cases and in several ways, in Portugal (Calado, Alvim and Henriques, in print).  

Finally, other menhirs scattered outside of the principal areas on the Peninsula, in places where they were not expected to be found, are Hito de Fuenteliante, in Salamanca or the menhirs from Cañal, between Madrid and the mountains of Guadarrama.

7.2. List of sites

8. Menhirs of the Iberian Peninsula: a first evaluation

The menhirs of Western Europe, and among them the Iberian menhirs, correspond to different moments and movements.

The origin of the European megalithic phenomenon, which has long been pursued in the studies of funerary megalitism, seems to be confused, more and more, in the last years, with the emergence of the first standing stones. The reutilization of menhirs in dolmens, the archaeological contexts associated with them and the re-evaluation of megalithic iconography have allowed for a more plausible working hypothesis concerning the antiquity of these monuments.

To the other extreme, nowadays there isn't any doubt that in several peninsular contexts, menhirs were erected in later periods such as the first Iron Age. During this time, they have clearly funerary contexts. This practice is widely encountered in the Basque country and in less recurrence, yet undeniably, in the central Alentejo and, it seems, in central Portugal.  

In between, we have evidence from various Neolithic menhirs that they were reinterpreted/reused, always in the context of funerary rituals, at the end of the Bronze Age - as it seems to be the case, for example, at the stela of Alfarrobeira, in the Algarve (Gomes, 1994a) - or during the Early Bronze Age as was recently verified at the excavations of Portela de Mogos enclosure (Gomes, 1997a) and the pair of menhirs from S. Sebastião 1 (Évora, Portugal). This last site, excavated by the author, is yet unpublished.

If the function of the later menhirs is revealed as being a part of funerary monuments, the Neolithic monuments (menhirs and megalithic enclosures) are still somewhat problematic.

Recently, in view of the ritual significance of the monuments, new observations (Alvim, in print; Silva and Calado, in print) satisfactorily suggest an astronomic orientation for the Alentejan megalithic menhirs (and mostly for the enclosures). This orientation revealed to be very reliable in integrating observations that are relatively elaborate such as the major and minor pauses of the moon in addition to the solstitial and equinoctial rising sun..  

On the other hand, even though the funerary function of the Iron Age monuments has been established, they   seem to integrate, with frequency, astronomical orientations in their structure. This has been argued, for example, for the enclosure of S. Cristóvão 1 (Silva, 2003) and for the Alava cromlech of Mendiluce (Vegas, 2001).

The form and dimensions of the menhirs, as well as the plan of the clusters, can have, hypothetically, chronological and cultural implications. In truth, taking into account Central Alentejo and in this region those monuments that were excavated and from which we have chronological information, we can affirm that in the older menhirs (placed in the Early/Middle Neolithic) the more angular forms are rare and the more rounded and pot-bellied forms are dominant (Fig. 5, A and B). On the contrary, the later menhirs, placed in the 1 st Iron Age, present forms much more angular and slender; note that the monuments of Vale d'El Rei (Fig. 5, B) and Monte da Tera (Fig. 5, C) are placed less that 2 kms from each other and therefore were subjected to the same raw material constraints.

Fig. 5: Compared morphology of the menhirs. A: Vale Maria do Meio (Évora, Portugal); B: Vale d'El Rei (Mora, Portugal); C: Monte da Tera (Mora, Portugal); D: Menires isolados da Cantábria (seg. Molinero, 2000).

It is interesting that the isolated Cantabrian menhirs generally correspond to this later model (Fig. 5, D). This is an aspect that should be coupled with the Chalcolithic chronologies that have been attributed to them, considering that some can be even later. Note that the difference between the Alentejan and Cantabrian raw materials (granite versus sandstone and limestone) are not enough to explain their obvious morphologic differences, since the Algarve menhirs, dating from the Neolithic or even before, are also made from limestone and sandstone and have, nevertheless, rounded and pot-bellied forms.

We could also observe that in Brittany, the famous alignments of Carnac, generally considered the latest in the regional sequence, (Sherratt, 1998) are overwhelmingly represented by irregular and angular forms, while the big stela-menhirs are morphologically similar to the Alentejan Neolithic menhirs.

As we know (Calado, 2002b), there exist other remarkable similarities between the Alentejan and Breton menhirs - at least between the ones, from both areas, that seem to be the most ancient.

Actually, these similarities can be noted, among other aspects, in the plan of the enclosures: it is, as a matter of fact, the only two European areas with menhirs where the layouts of the enclosures are normally "horseshoe" (Fig. 4, A). In Great Britain and Ireland, on the contrary, there exist hundreds of megalithic enclosures and practically all of them have a circular closed plan and are certainly chronologically later (Burl, 1979 and 1999)

This aspect, as it pertains to the Iberian Peninsula, poses not only the hypothesis of the Cantabrian (and of course the Pyrenean) enclosures (Fig. 4,B) being later than the Alentejan ones - that correspond to the chronological sets - but also, the attribution of distinctive cultural areas to both regions.   In a first phase (eventually centered around 5000 BC), there is a cultural "proximity" that resulted from long distance contacts between southern Portugal and Brittany without incidence in other Peninsular areas and in a second phase (after 4000 BC), a dominant cultural "proximity" between northern Spain and the British Isles.  

This model, which certainly needs some reworking, should integrate the analogies between the Mesolithic shell middens of the Tejo/Sado and Brittany, but, also, some recognizable points of contact between the northwest rock art from the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles.  

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